This Paper recommends initial and recurrent training (perhaps as part of CRM or Human Factors training) for NE pilots and controllers to support them in becoming better communicators, especially when interacting with NNEs via Radiotelephony. This training should focus on: Awareness: explaining the reasons WHY NEs need to adapt and accommodate their language and communication techniques when dealing with less proficient users of English. Having empathy for the challenges faced by NNEs is an essential first step towards NEs becoming better communicators. Techniques: HOW to do this; developing the skills and techniques to make Radiotelephony communication more efficient, more effective and more inclusive. A suitable training programme is likely to include the following:

BACKGROUND • Why English is so important for aviation safety. • An overview of the ICAO LPRs. ICAO requires all pilots and Air Traffic Controllers (including NEs) to meet the English language safety standards. • English is the common language of international aviation but globally NNEs far outnumber NEs. • Most NNEs find it easier to understand the English of other NNEs than the English of NEs. STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY & PLAIN ENGLISH • The importance of using standard phraseology. • When and how to use Plain English in practice. • For NEs, using Plain English may seem unnatural at first; it is a skill which has to be learned. RATE OF SPEECH • Awareness that fast speech is one of the biggest causes of communication failure. • What are the ICAO rate of speech recommendations? • Techniques to comply with the rate of speech recommendations. PRONUNCIATION & ACCENTS • Why English can be hard for NNEs to pronounce. • How NEs can adapt their pronunciation to make it easier to understand. • How NEs can become more familiar with understanding internationally-accented English. READBACK & CLARIFICATION • The extent of the problem of incorrect readback and hearback. • What (linguistically) we can expect from NNEs. • NNEs may need to check, confirm and clarify. • The aim is to ‘get it right the first time’.

SIMPLE TRANSMISSIONS • Why everyone can find long transmissions difficult to process. • ICAO and FAA guidance on message length and complexity. • Keeping messages short. VOCABULARY • What level of vocabulary can be expected from NNEs? • How to keep language simple and the types of vocabulary to avoid. • Avoiding phrasal verbs, idioms and slang. GRAMMAR • The minimum level of grammar ICAO expects from NNEs. • How to use safe, simple grammar where necessary. • Using active (rather than passive) verb forms. COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN • Recognising the signs that misunderstanding may have occurred. • Techniques to check / clarify / confirm understanding. • Resolving misunderstanding. • Why and how NEs should take the lead in managing communication breakdown. • Recognising that repeat transmissions add to frequency congestion and workload. HUMAN FACTORS • Non-language factors that can also affect communication. • How NEs can use their linguistic and interpersonal skills to help ‘manage the dialogue’. • NEs as exemplars of good Radiotelephony communication. • How factors such as fatigue, traffic volume and information can overload language processing. • Addressing our unconscious biases.

The R.E.S.P.E.C.T. principle of communication is a useful guide for both NEs and NNEs.

Collecting data in this safety critical domain is challenging and not well supported. One leading data resource is NASA’s Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) which contains valuable information on incidents and accidents related to communication. The database is accessible to everyone (here), is easy to interrogate and offers a 'Communication Breakdown' classification code. Between Febuary 2022 and February 2024, 2,974 reports were submitted where 'Communication Breakdown' was a primary or contributing factor. The NASA / ASRS database is primarily focussed on US incidents / accidents. EASA has a safety reporting system which collects occurrence, incident and accident data based on the ICAO ADREP taxonomy. Other countries have their own systems to collect safety-related data but access is typically challenging. The reporting system is fragmented and there is no single, global reporting system which is used by all members of the aviation community. Furthermore, the use of the taxonomies ‘Communication Breakdown’ and ‘Language Breakdown’ to categorize events is inconsistent or entirely absent. Consequently it is extremely difficult to make an accurate analysis of the nature and scale of the ‘Communication Breakdown’ / ‘Language Breakdown’ issue. This Paper recognises the challenges of the current safety reporting systems. The following training measures are proposed: CRM – implement CRM training program elements that enhance communication skills among flight crews and the various aviation personnel with whom they interact. Emphasise communication techniques, assertiveness, active listening and the importance of clearly and simply stating intentions and concerns within the flight deck. Language Proficiency Requirements – enforce language proficiency standards for flight crews, air traffic controllers and ground personnel involved in aviation operations. Ensure that individuals, particularly NEs, possess sufficient skills to minimise misunderstandings and language barriers.

The perspectives of NNEs are essential to any discussion about communication in aviation. The industry needs to actively promote and cultivate greater collaboration with NNEs to ensure that the challenges they face are heard and appropriate measures are taken to support them and minimize the risk of miscommunication.

Reporting – educate aviation personnel about the importance of reporting situations where language was a critical threat to safety. Cross Functional collaboration – foster collaboration between aviation stakeholders, including regulatory agencies, airlines, aircraft manufacturers and Air Navigation Service providers to share best practices, lessons learned and communication-related incidents. Establish forums for dialogue and knowledge exchange to promote continuous improvement in communication processes and safety culture.

1. SSE (Simplified Spoken English) Standard Phraseology can be considered a subset of English, but with distinct characteristics tailored specifically for aviation communication. While some phrases can resemble everyday English, others can be quite distinct or unintelligible to those unfamiliar with aviation terminology. When Standard Phraseology is no longer sufficient for communication (for example, during some non- routine and emergency situations), ‘Plain English’ is to be used. ICAO advises that transmissions should be clear, concise and ‘simple’ so that everyone (including NNEs) is more likely to understand. However, the concept of ‘simple’ can be subjective, varying from person to person. This paper proposes a more precise definition of ‘Plain English’ leading to the development of SSE (Simplified Spoken English) for Aviation. Simplified Technical English (STE) can serve as a model for SSE. STE is a controlled language designed to simplify and standardize the WRITTEN English used in technical documents, particularly in the Aerospace and Defence industries. It aims to ensure clarity and consistency, especially for international audiences and non-native English speakers. STE limits its Dictionary to approximately 900 words, ensuring "one word - one meaning". For example, "start" is used instead of "begin", "commence", "initiate", or "originate". Each word's definition is chosen to avoid multiple interpretations; "fall," for instance, means "to move down by the force of gravity," excluding other meanings like "to decrease." The latest version of Simplified Technical English (STE) is here. STE principles can be applied to develop SSE (Simplified SPOKEN English) for pilots, controllers, AMTEMS, etc.: Develop a standardized Dictionary to enhance consistency and understanding. Avoid jargon, complex terminology, and complicated sentence structures. Develop rules for grammar and sentence structure that promote clarity and intelligibility. (e.g., favouring the active voice over the passive voice, simple verb tenses and concise expressions). Use consistent terminology to prevent unnecessary variation or ambiguity.

1. SSE (Simplified Spoken English) To ensure consistency, the vocabulary and rules used in STE should be replicated in SSE whenever possible. Special care should be taken with similar-sounding words and those that might be difficult for some NNEs to pronounce. STE is already familiar to the aviation industry. The group which maintains the specification includes representatives from companies such as British Aerospace, Airbus, The Boeing Company, Lockheed Martin, Rolls-Royce, EADS, Dassault and Saab Aerosystems. SSE would bring significant benefits to the aviation community: • NNEs could focus their learning on a narrower set of vocabulary. • NEs would know the precise terms NNEs are expected to be familiar with. The prescribed, limited language of SSE would also facilitate and accelerate the future development of computer-assisted translation and artificial communication systems.

2. ‘Don’t Tell Me, Show Me’ ICAO’s Manual of Radiotelephony (Doc 9432) and UK CAA’s CAP 413: Radiotelephony Manual contain only text and images. As well as telling pilots and controllers WHAT to say in specific situations it is also necessary to show them HOW to say it (in terms of accent, speed of delivery, pausing, emphasising key information, etc.). Audio files (as examples of good practice) should be embedded into Radiotelephony manuals or included in supporting materials. Recommendations: Produce examples of speech (from both NEs and NNEs) which are considered ‘intelligible to the aeronautical community’. Embed audio files into Radiotelephony manuals or include them in supporting materials. Create greater awareness that as well as SPEAKERS taking responsibility for intelligible speech, LISTENERS also have a responsibility to improve their understanding of accented speech. This could be achieved through free resources such as Mayflower College’s Accent Tool: LOGIN: aviation-english.com/accents USERNAME: sayagain PASSWORD: bluesky45*

3. Free training resource for NNEs The ‘Accent Tool’ (see page 19) helps pilots and controllers to improve their ability to listen to accented English. To complement this tool it would be helpful to have another free resource which offers advice and tips to NNEs to improve their speaking skills. This could include: ‘Tips' which apply to all NNEs. For example: Don’t focus too much on trying to sound like a NEs .... speaking clearly is the most important thing. Slow down - speak at the speed you would like the other person to use (mirroring). Don’t try to impress the other person with how good your English is ... there is no place for ego in safe, effective Radiotelephony. If necessary, use the phonetic alphabet to spell important words. ‘Manage’ the communication exchange. Don't be afraid to say: ‘English is not my first language ... please speak more slowly / stick to Standard Phraseology / speak clearly / Say Again / what does x mean?’ If in doubt, ask for confirmation. Don’t guess or only listen for the main points / gist. Have the confidence to speak out / be assertive. Specific advice for those whose first language is Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Portuguese, Russian and Arabic. For example, French speakers should focus on: Vowel sounds: hit / heat The h / th / r sounds Syllable stress Question formation, etc. Examples of 'model' English speakers whose first language is Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Portuguese, Russian and Arabic.

5. LPR Testing There is anecdotal evidence that current LPR testing is of variable quality and standardisation. In many States, different tests are available and pilots / controllers choose the test they feel is the ‘easiest’. Further investigation is required to determine the nature and scale of this problem. A study where the same candidates take several different tests and the results compared would be useful. There is evidence that during flight checks, examiners / instructors encounter pilots with ‘Level 6’ awards whose proficiency in English is clearly not of the required standard. In such cases, what practical options are available to the examiner / instructor? Should the trainee's lack of proficiency be reported to their licensing authority?

4. Standard Phraseology Training and Testing Aviation safety could be enhanced with a more consistent and accurate use of Standard Phraseology throughout the world. Research indicates that some NEs frequently deviate from Standard Phraseology. LPR testing currently focuses on ‘Plain English’ rather than Standard Phraseology. The teaching of Standard Phraseology is mostly limited to ab initio training. Any formal testing is mostly limited to written multiple-choice tests without any focus on HOW the Standard Phraseology should be delivered (in terms of speed of delivery, clarity, pausing, emphasising critical information, etc.). There is a strong case for Standard Phraseology testing to be combined with LPR testing.